Excerpt from the unpublished Terminology volume

à la

A shortened version of the French term à la mode de (see below) used to indicate the particular style or "mode" in which a dish is prepared. For example: à la Russe denotes "Russian style," à la viennoise signifies the dish is "Viennese style" and à la anglaise means "in the English style." (The term anglaise is also used to refer to Creme Anglaise, see separate listing.)

à la carte

A term used on restaurant menus to indicate that each item is priced individually.

à la minute

This designation is given to indicate that a dish is prepared at the last moment, or "to order," meaning it is not made until the customer orders it.

à la mode

A French term that means "in the manner of" or "in the style of" used to designate the method in which a dish is prepared. It is sometimes shortened to à la with the same meaning. In the United States, the term à la mode is used to refer to topping a slice of pie or another dessert with ice cream.

Abaisse

A French term that is used in the pastry kitchen to describe a sheet of dough or pastry that has been rolled out into a thin sheet. Abaisse also refer to a thin bottom crust on a cake or pastry.

Abboccato

Italian for "semisweet" or "semidry;" most often used to describe wine.

Abernathy biscuit

A firm cracker from Scotland, flavored with caraway seeds, that was originally created by a physician, Dr. John Abernathy, in the early 1800s as digestive cure.

Aboukir

1. A filled and iced cake in which the sponge cake base is baked in a charlotte mold to produce the characteristic form of the finished cake. After baking, the cake is sliced into layers, filled with a chestnut cream, glazed with coffee-flavored fondant and decorated with pistachios.
2. Bombe Aboukir is a frozen dessert made by lining the bombe mold with pistachio ice cream and filling it with a praline (hazelnut) flavored filling.

Aboukir almonds

These are a candy made by pressing a blanched almond into a small oval of pink or green marzipan (the almond remains visible on one side), and dipping the whole into a hard-crack sugar syrup which hardens to form a translucent glaze. These are served with petits fours in the same way as glazed fruits. See also Glazed Fruits.

Abricot

French for "apricot."

Acetate sheet; Acetate strip

See Appendix B, Equipment, Fundamentals of Baking and Pastry

Acetic acid

1. An acid found in wine. When too much of this acid develops, the wine turns into vinegar.
2. The integral component of vinegar.
3. A food additive used to produce a sour flavor and control pH levels.
4. A natural acid found in plants and animals.

Aceto Dolce

From Italy, aceto dolce is a fruit spread, served like jam, made from fruit preserved in vinegar that is then cooked with grape juice and honey. Aceto is the Italian word for "vinegar," and dolce is the Italian word for "sweet."

Acetomel

A mixture of honey and vinegar that was used prevalently many years ago for the preservation of hard fruits such as pears, apples or quinces. The name comes from two Latin words acetum, meaning vinegar and mel meaning homey. See also listings for Aceto Dolce and Hydromel.

Acid

An acid produces the sour flavor found in various foods and it also denotes a chemical intensity. If hydrogen is produced when a substance is submerged in a water solution, that substance is acid to some degree. The degree of acidity is expressed by the hydrogen concentration, commonly known as pH. The pH scale goes from 0 to 14, with 0 being very acid and 14 being very alkaline (the opposite of acid). At the center of the scale, with a reading of 7, is pure water, which is neutral. The word acid comes form the Latin acidus, meaning "sour." Some naturally occurring acids are found in vinegar (acetic acid), wine (tartaric acid), lemon juice (citric acid), sour milk (lactic acid), and apples (malic acid). Acids can be used as tenderizers because they break down connective tissue and cell walls. They are also used to give foods a tart taste, and in wine they make the flavor more interesting and complex. The citric acid in lemon juice is used to prevent cut fruit from oxidizing (see acidulated water below) and acids also help to coagulate proteins, which is why lemon juice or vinegar are added to the water used when poaching eggs. A small amount of acid such as lemon juice, tartaric acid or cream of tartar are used in making meringue in order to lower the pH level in the albumen (the egg white).

Acidic

An adjective used to describe a sour or tart flavor.

Acidophilus

Lactobacillus acidophilus is a bacterium found in fresh milk. The bacterium is destroyed during pasteurization, but it is possible to isolate this element and return it to milk or yogurt. The advantage of "acidophilus milk" or "acidophilus yogurt" is its ability to help those who have a low tolerance to the milk sugar lactose (making it difficult or impossible for them to digest milk without dietary upset), because the bacteria help consume the lactose during the digestive process.

Acidulant

An ingredient added to food to produce a sour flavor or to act as a preservative.

Acidulate; Acidulated water

To acidulate a food item means to make it slightly acid, most often by adding lemon juice or vinegar. Acidulated water (water that has been mixed with an acid, typically lemon juice), is commonly used to prevent cut pieces of fresh fruit from becoming brown from exposure to air. The fruit may be placed in enough acidulated water to cover it completely, or it may simply be tossed with enough to coat the cut surfaces. Approximately 1 tablespoon of lemon juice per quart of water is sufficient.

Acidulation

The browning of cut fruit caused by an enzyme reaction. This differs scientifically from oxidation, wherein cut fruit becomes brown from exposure to the air, however the result is the same and both are prevented by the use of an acid (see Acidulated water).

Additives

Food additives are used to enhance flavor, improve nutritional quality, prolong shelf life, assist in preparation or manufacture, and to add visual appeal to food products. The food additives that would likely be used in the average restaurant pastry kitchen are generally limited to those already present in purchased ingredients. A high quality operation selling freshly prepared goods everyday is unlikely to have a shelf full of chemicals and preservatives. This is not to say, however, that all items classified as food additives are artificial or unfavorable. Anti-caking agents are found in powdered cake or custard mixes and some flours, and preservatives may be present in purchased "halfway-products" such as candy fillings and nut pastes. Probably the only food additives used in preparation on any regular basis are food colorings, flavoring extracts, and thickening agents.

Adobe bread

Traditional yeast bread made by the Pueblo Indians of the American Southwest. The bread is baked in a distinctive oven that is shaped like a beehive.

Aebleskiver

A traditional Danish sweet. Aebleskiver are often called "Danish doughnuts," but unlike doughnuts they are not deep-fried. They are prepared from a batter flavored with beer, spices, and citrus zest, that is leavened with baking powder (as well as eggs). Aebleskiver are cooked on top of the stove in a special pan known as an aebleskivepande. The pan has deep individual half sphere indentations that form the aebleskiver as they cook. The batter is added to the indentations in the hot buttered pan, filling each about two-thirds full. Once the "doughnuts" have set on the bottom they are turned over and cooked on the other side, producing a round ball at the end of the cooking process. The traditional "old-country" way to turn the aebleskiver in the pan is to spear them with a knitting needle or a metal skewer. A small amount of jam or a slice of apple is sometimes inserted into the center of the Aebleskiver before turning them. The name aebleskiver translates to "apple slice." The cooked pastries are served warm, dusted with powdered sugar. See also Aebleskiver pan, Appendix B, Equipment, Fundamentals of Baking and Pastry.

Aerate/Aeration

To aerate something is to incorporate air and/or gas (technically air is a type of gas) into that product; the process itself is called aeration. Air is added to batters by mixing, beating or whisking. Whipping egg whites to foam is a good example of aeration. In baking yeast-leavened products, the gas that is produced by the yeast (during rising and again during baking) creates aeration, as do the gases produced by baking powder and baking soda when those are used for leavening. The addition of air into pastry and baked goods is important to make them more attractive, improve flavor and texture and to make them easier to digest.

Agar

See Appendix A, Ingredients, Fundamentals of Baking and Pastry.

Aging; To age

To allow foods a period of time to rest and mature. It is most often used in reference to aging meat to make it more tender, and in aging wine and cheese to develop their full flavors. In the pastry kitchen the term "aging" is used in the preparation of ice cream. When making ice cream, aging refers to chilling the custard base before churning or processing in an ice cream freezer. Chilling the custard improves the smoothness, body and texture of the finished product because as it rests, the proteins in the custard swell and bind with the water. It is not the process of making it colder that is doing the work, refrigeration is simply necessary so that the product does not spoil during the aging process. Four hours minimum is necessary, but refrigerating the custard base overnight is ideal.

Agua

Spanish for "water."

Airelle

An eau-de-vie made from cranberries.

Airelle rouge

The French name for "cranberry."

Albumen

The white portion of an egg.

Albumin

The protein found in egg whites. Albumin is one of a group of heat coagulating proteins that are soluble in water. Albumin is also found in blood plasma, milk, and most animal tissues, as well as vegetable tissues including peas, wheat, and soybean. In addition to coagulating (thickening) when heated, albumin will coagulate to a lesser extent when whipped, the obvious example being the whipping of egg whites.

Alkali

Any of several chemical compounds that react when combined with an acid product or ingredient to form a salt and thereby neutralize the acidic property of the ingredient. The most common example of this in the pastry kitchen is the use of baking soda (an alkali) to neutralize the acid when using dairy products such as sour cream or buttermilk in a cake batter. As the baking soda neutralizes the acid, the result is the release of carbon dioxide gas, which in turn forms air bubbles, causing the cake to rise.

Alkalized cocoa powder

Cocoa powder that has been processed with an alkali, usually potassium carbonate, to raise its pH level. This produces a cocoa powder that is darker in color, sometimes reddish, and milder in taste (this is form of unsweetened cocoa powder used in this book). The process was invented by a Dutchman, Conrad J. Van Houten, who also invented the process used to separate cocoa butter and cocoa powder from finely ground cocoa beans, which contributed in a very significant way in the improvement of chocolate refinement. Alkalized cocoa powder is commonly referred to as Dutch-process cocoa or Dutch cocoa, named for the inventor. Natural unsweetened cocoa powder has not been treated with an alkali and therefore has a slight acid taste. Dutch-process cocoa is easier to dissolve in liquid.

Alkaloid

Any one of several bitter components containing alkaline properties, that are found in plants and, to a lesser extent, in animal tissue.

Alléluia

A citron flavored cake made at Easter, Alléluias are a specialty of the French town of Castelnaudary. These cakes have been made in that region since the beginning of the 1800s and it has been recorded that they were "blessed" with their name during a visit from Pope Pius VII.

Alligator pear

An old-fashioned name used for avocados. See Avocado, Appendix A, Ingredients, Fundamentals of Baking and Pastry.

All-in process/ All-in-one-process

The method of preparing a recipe in which all of the ingredients are mixed together from the start as opposed to adding and mixing in stages.

Allumette

A French word used to describe a small strip of puff pastry topped or filled with a sweet or savory mixture. The savory versions are served as hors d'oeuvres. Allumettes may be served either hot or cold. One typical sweet variety of Allumette is a made by simply spreading royal icing over small puff pastry rectangles and then baking them until the icing has browned and dough is fully puffed. These may be served as is, or split horizontally and filled. Allumette is also the French word for "match," and it is used for very finely cut "matchstick" fried potatoes.

Almond

See Appendix A, Ingredients, Fundamentals of Baking and Pastry.

Almond Cream

A filling made from pastry cream, ground almonds, eggs, butter and sugar, that is used in tarts and pastries that are to be baked; it is similar to Frangipane and some cookbooks list it as the same product. There are also recipes for dessert "creams" (in many different flavors, almond being one) that fall under the heading of mousses or Bavarians; these are not related to this product.

Almond Macaroon

See Macaroon.

Almond Milk

1. A beverage or soup originating in the Middle Ages that was the forerunner of the dessert blancmange (see Blancmange). Almond milk at that time was prepared by combining crushed almonds, onions, wine, spices and water and boiling this mixture to extract the flavor.
2. The French wording lait d'amande (almond milk), is used to describe a cake prepared from a macaroon style batter. It is baked in a round form, coated with apricot glaze, topped with marzipan, frosted, and then coated with toasted almonds.
3. The liquid that remains after finely ground almonds are steeped in water and the mixture is forced through cheesecloth.

Almond paste

See Appendix A, Ingredients, Fundamentals of Baking and Pastry.

Alpine strawberry

A variety of strawberry that grows in a region that extends from Northern Scandinavia to South Central Europe bordering the Alps. The berries are either white (the "white" berries are actually pale yellow) or red. Alpine strawberries are smaller than the common strawberry grown in the United States and have a far less pronounced triangular shape; they are closer to an oval. Also unlike their larger counterparts, red alpine strawberries are still pale white inside even when they are fully ripe. Also known as fraise des bois. See Fraise de bois. See also Strawberry, Appendix A, Fundamentals of Baking and Pastry.

Aluminum

A lightweight, flexible metal used in the kitchen in the form of aluminum foil and disposable aluminum pie tins. Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the earth's crust. It never occurs alone, but rather is an important part of many minerals, including clay, bauxite, mica, feldspar, alum, cryolite, and the several forms of aluminum oxide (alumina). Aluminum is prepared for commercial use using a process involving heat and chemicals to separate and purify it. Aluminum is used to make baking pans and other cookware. Aluminum foil is widely used in the pastry kitchen as a wrapping material for the storage of baked goods and in some cases as a pan liner. Aluminum pie tins are available in both individual and larger sizes and in addition to their intended use as disposable containers for desserts, they are used as a decorating tool in creating plate presentations.

Amande

French for "almond."

Amande Amère

French for "bitter almonds."

Amandine

1. A French term that indicates a dish is prepared with and/or garnished with almonds.
2. One of several types of almond-based pastries, such as small tartlet shells baked with frangipane filling, rich cake squares, or small ring shaped cakes made from an almond paste based batter. The pastries are glazed with apricot jam and decorated with candied cherries.

Amaretti

An Italian macaroon cookie. These cookies are very crisp (dried through) and are usually sold wrapped in tissue paper and packaged in decorative tins or jars. The cookies are made using both sweet and bitter almonds. Amaretti are sometimes used in dessert recipes where they are first ground to a powder.

Amaretto

See Appendix A, Ingredients, Fundamentals of Baking and Pastry.

Ambassador cake

A Classic French cake comprised of a Grand Marnier flavored sponge base filled with custard and candied fruit, covered with a thin sheet of marzipan.

Ambassador walnut

A type of English walnut. See Walnut, Appendix A, Ingredients, Fundamentals of Baking and Pastry.

Ambre

A French cake created in the 1980s by Lucien Peltier. The cake is comprised of chocolate sponge cake layered with almond mousse and chocolate mousse fillings to which caramelized walnuts have been added. Ambre is covered with two-tone chocolate and white icing (in a marbleized pattern) and chocolate decorations. The cake is traditionally made in a square shape.

Ambrosia

1. The name for the "food of the gods" in Greek mythology, this substance (no actual description was ever mentioned) was said to be that which gave the gods their immortality. The designation "ambrosia" was popular in the past to describe a food dish (mostly sweets), that were considered especially delicious or rich.
2. Ambrosia is also the name of a type of a fruit salad particularly popular in the American south. Most likely the name comes from the inclusion of coconut and tropical fruits, which were probably considered "exotic" many years ago. Ambrosia is made by alternating layers of fruit- usually orange segments, sliced bananas, chopped pineapple, and grapes- with layers of sweetened shredded coconut. Orange juice is poured over the top and the dessert is left to chill for several hours. Another variation takes the same ingredients (cut fruit and coconut) and folds them into whipped cream.
3. A cocktail containing Champagne, lemon juice, brandy, Calvados and Grand Marnier.

Amino Acid

Amino acids are the main components of proteins. Twenty specific types are classified scientifically as "important" and of those half, (10), are considered "essential" for human survival (see below). A living cell creates protein when two different amino acids link to form a bond. This first group is then linked to a third, and so on, until a long chain is produced. This chainlike molecule may contain up to several hundred amino acid subgroups, or links. A protein may be formed of a single chain, or it may consist of several chains held together by molecular bonds. Most plants are able to make all the amino acids they require for growth. Humans, however, must obtain some of the standard amino acids from their diet; these amino acids are called "essential" and include lysine, tryptophan, valine, histidine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, threonine, methionine, and arginine. They are found in protein-rich foods from animal sources (such as meat and dairy products) and in some plant proteins. The process of breaking down these bonded proteins is a large part of the means of both cooking and digesting food.

Ammonium Carbonate

Ammonium carbonate (or bicarbonate) is also known by the name hartshorn because it was originally produced from hart's horns and hooves (hart is the name for a male deer). Today's commercial product is a chemical, specifically the ammonium salt of carbonic acid. Ammonium carbonate is used mainly in cookies and short dough to produce a longer lasting crisp texture; it can also be used in pâte à choux to give it an extra puff. Ammonium carbonate can be used as a substitute for baking soda and baking powder but only in cookies or doughs with very little moisture or in pastries that are baked at a high temperature. Ammonium carbonate reacts to heat, producing water, ammonia, and dioxide gas. It has a very strong odor that completely disappears above 140°F (60°C). It must always be stored in an airtight container or it will quickly evaporate. Ammonium carbonate is available from any bakery supply store. It can also be ordered from a chemist or local laboratory.

Amontillado

A variety of sherry. See Sherry, Appendix A, Ingredients, Fundamentals of Baking and Pastry.

Amylose

One of the elements found in starch, amylose is characterized by its straight chains of glucose units. This is the soluble component in the starch that forms a gel. To simplify, amylose is the part that dissolves and later sets up.

Anadama bread

Anadama bread is a cornbread leavened with yeast. Legend has it that this bread was created accidentally by a fisherman who felt that his wife, Anna, was lazy and indifferent, because she served him the same cornmeal mush every day. One day, he allegedly exclaimed "Anna, damn it!" and proceeded to add molasses, salt, flour and some yeast to the mush, creating a light and tasty loaf of corn bread.

Ananas

Dutch, French, German, Italian, Norwegian, Russian and Swedish for "pineapple."

Angel biscuit

A biscuit leavened with both baking powder and yeast.

Angel food cake

A feather-light sponge cake baked in a tall tube pan, that uses only the air incorporated into stiffly beaten egg whites to achieve it's airy texture; no chemical leavening agents are used. Angel food cake does not contain egg yolks or any other fat, making it a good choice for low fat or low calorie dessert presentations. Angel food cakes are quite sweet due to the additional sugar needed to support and stabilize the albumen in the whipped egg whites, in part due to the lack of fat. Because of its sweet flavor, angel food cake is especially nice paired with fruit. Adding unsweetened cocoa powder to make chocolate angel food cake also brings the sweetness to a more acceptable level.

Anglaise

1. À l'anglaise is a designation given to many classical dishes in French cooking. It literally means "in the English style," and includes meat, seafood and vegetables prepared in various ways, none of which actually have a common theme.
2. The term "anglaise" is sometimes used in the pastry kitchen as a shorthand name for the custard sauce Crème Anglaise. See Crème Anglaise.

Ankerstock

A type of spice bread, or gingerbread, from Scotland, Ankerstock is known to have been made as early as the1800s. It is typically prepared with rye flour and flavored with dried currants.

Annatto

Used as a colorant in cheese, shortening and margarine, annatto comes from the seeds of the tree Bixa orellanna, commonly called an annatto tree. The seeds themselves are called achiote seeds and the substance annatto or annatto extract is the name of the coloring agent derived from the seeds. The main component is bizin, known chemically as C₂₅H₃₀0₄. Annatto can be used to produce a tint from light yellow to deep orange. The ground seeds can be purchased as a paste generally labeled achiote. Annatto was used as a food coloring, primarily for cheeses, as long ago as the 1600s.

Annonae

The fruits of certain tropical tree species called Annona. The best known in this group is the cherimoya, also known as a custard apple. See Cherimoya, Appendix A, Ingredients, Fundamentals of Baking and Pastry.

Anthocyanin

The pigment found in both red grapes and beets that gives them their red color. This is the same element that is responsible for most of the color in red, purple, and blue fruits and flowers. When foods containing anthocyanin are combined with a substance that is too alkaline, the color will change from red to purple and begin to fade. Adding an acid will prevent this and will even reverse the effect after it has occurred, changing the purple color back to red.

Apee

A cookie named for the initials (A.P.) of its creator, Ann Page. Ms. Page created this soft, sour cream based cookie in Philadelphia in the 1800s.

Appellation

A term used in wine production and wine labeling that refers to a specific area where grapes are grown and wine is produced under a strict set of regulations. In France the Appellation D'Origine Contrôlée (see below) sets the regulations. Portugal, Italy, Spain and the United States each have their own set of similar rules for wine production and labeling.

Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée

A group of French laws that stipulate the labeling terminology used on French wines. The regulations govern and specify the wine's geographic origin, the quality of the product, the grape varietal, the minimal alcoholic content of the finished product and the maximum production allowed per acre of vineyard.

Apple

See Appendix A, Ingredients, Fundamentals of Baking and Pastry

Apple Butter

See Applesauce and Fruit butters.

Apple Brown Betty

A baked dessert with a pudding like texture, made by combining apples, spices, sugar and bread crumbs and baking the combination at low heat in a casserole dish.

Brown Betty has been known by several names over the years and can be made with other types of firm fruit, pears for example, instead of apples. Most likely the dessert was brought to the United States from Europe in early Colonial times. It was a favorite in the northeast, where it was made with originally made with apples and was known as Apple Pan Dowdy. (Today, the name pan dowdy is used for a dessert consisting of a layer of fruit baked with cake batter on top.)

The name Betty is said to have originated in Virginia during the time of slavery, first as Apple Brown Betty. At Christmas it was customary for plantations to put on a minstrel show with the characters portrayed by African slaves. The two main roles were that of Father Christmas and Mother Christmas, who was also known as Old Beth. At the conclusion of the play Father Christmas would distribute presents while Old Beth served a dessert which was very similar to the old-fashioned version of apple pan dowdy. By the mid-1800s Old Beth's treat had become known as Apple Brown Betty in many cookbooks. Later it was shortened to Apple Betty, and now most cookbooks simply call this style of dessert Betty.

Brown Betty and similar desserts were so popular long ago because, not only did they taste great, they were simple to prepare, used inexpensive ingredients, and they could be baked in a slow oven alongside other food for a long period of time without attention- one old recipe actually directs that the dish be cooked overnight. Brown Betty should always be served hot or warm accompanied by cream or ice cream.

Apple Charlotte

See Charlotte.

Apple dumpling

A whole poached apple- often stuffed with a filling where the core was removed- wrapped in sweet pastry dough, baked, and served warm. Typical accompaniments are cream, ice cream and/or caramel sauce. Other types of dessert dumplings may be poached or steamed, which is the cooking method more commonly used to make savory dumplings.

Apple pandowdy

A country-style dessert that originated in the United States. It consists of sliced apples that are flavored with sugar and spices and baked under a biscuit topping, making it a cross between an apple crisp and an apple cobbler. Apple Pandowdy is also called Apple grunt.

Apple Pie

Unquestionably considered an American classic, the traditional dessert is a baked with both a top and bottom crust, and a filling of raw sliced apples flavored with sugar, cinnamon, cloves and a bit of butter. The amount of sugar needed really depends on the apples, and often a little lemon juice adds a nice flavor. Apple pie is usually served warm with vanilla ice cream or sweetened whipped cream, but many people prefer cheddar cheese as an accompaniment.

Apple Strudel

Strudels are made by topping a paper thin dough with the desired filling and rolling the whole into a spiral to enclose the filling. The pastry is then baked and sliced into serving pieces.

To many people, apple strudel is the most famous of all strudels and well as the most famous of all Austrian pastries; it has always been closely associated with Vienna in particular. However, it is generally accepted that the dessert did not originate in Austria at all. The Hungarians, who call their strudel retes, first adopted the incredibly thin strudel dough from the Turkish pastry baklava. The Hungarians filled the dough with apples, nuts, raisins, and whatever cake or bread crumbs were at hand. History differs on exactly how this Hungarian strudel arrived in Vienna, but the general theory is this: With the departure of the Ottoman invaders (the Ottoman Empire at its height included Vienna), the now unemployed Turkish and Hungarian cooks took their skills and specialties (and certainly strudel was among them) to the kitchens of the Viennese aristocrats in the new Austro-Hungarian empire.

Strudel is a German word that literally translates to "whirlpool," "eddy," or "vortex"-in this case, a swirling mass of pastry dough and filling. Although apple is by far the most well known variety, the number of different strudel fillings is almost limitless and includes both sweet and savory fare. The savory varieties are especially popular among eastern Europeans and in fact were a staple food for the majority at one time in places such as Hungary, Turkey and Greece.

The paper-thin strudel dough is stretched rather than rolled to achieve its almost transparent composition. Strudel dough has been described as being "so thin that you must look twice to see it," or as a German colleague of mine says, "You should be able to read a newspaper through the dough!"

To successfully produce a properly stretched strudel dough requires time, patience, and a large workspace. For these reasons many people purchase the dough already prepared. If strudel dough is not available, phyllo dough makes a fine substitute.

Applesauce

Peeled and chopped or sliced apples cooked until they break down and become a puree. If the apples are juicy it is not necessary to add any water at the start. Sugar is added to taste, and cinnamon is a traditional flavoring. Applesauce is usually not strained but some recipes call for this step. If the applesauce is reduced to the point of becoming very thick and almost dry it becomes Apple Butter.

Artisan Bread

The word artisan refers to an artist or craftsperson, one that works with his or her hands without the aid of machinery. The designation artisan bread has become popular today as consumers are demanding higher-quality products, and bakers have taken a new and greater interest in using simple, old-fashioned techniques to create the wonderful flavors and textures of rustic hearth breads like those made by village bakers in the old countries. Specific things that separate artisan breads from mass produced breads are:

• regarding quality above quantity- most are made in small batches;
• slower rising and fermentation times which contribute to a more complex flavor;
• the use of whole grain flours, often stone milled;
• exclusion of preservatives or artificial ingredients;
• shaping the loaves by hand and usually kneading the dough by hand as well;
• the use of a pre-dough or pre-ferment, often from natural wild yeast;
• baking directly on the hearth in stone or brick ovens, which are commonly fired by wood.

Artificial Sweeteners

Artificial sweeteners are not used to a large extent in the majority of restaurant dessert kitchens or pastry shops, other than those specializing in sugar-free or diabetic products. There are occasions, however, when the pastry department is asked to produce something for a special occasion or for a particular customer with dietary restrictions, where for one reason or another the instructions preclude the use of sugar. Certainly some recipes are much easier to modify than others are. If the item will not be cooked, aspartame, which is readily available, can be used to sweeten a sauce, a finished custard or a whipped topping, but it can not be used for baking. Aspartame is anywhere from 150 to 200 times sweeter than granulated sugar, so obviously a much smaller amount is used when substituting aspartame for granulated sugar. Many new sugar substitutes have become available in the last few years in part due to the recent interest in low-carbohydrate diets. Many of these substitutes can be sued for cooking and baking with very good results. Other artificial sweeteners, some of which are no longer used, include saccharin, cyclamates, and stevioside.

• Aspartame - Aspartame, discovered in 1965, is the most widely known artificial sweetener on the market. It is sold under the brand names of NutraSweet and Equal and is familiar to most people in the individual serving size paper packets generally offered with coffee and tea. It is an amino-acid compound that is approximately 150 to 200 times as sweet as sugar. Aspartame cannot be used in cooking because its sweetening power is destroyed once the product reaches the boiling point. Like saccharin and cyclamates, many people are concerned about possible long-term health problems from aspartame use.
• Saccharin - Saccharin is a derivative of coal tar. It is a white, crystalline, aromatic compound that is three hundred times as sweet as sugar. It was discovered accidentally by I. Remsen and C. Fahlberg in 1879. Pure saccharin tastes several hundred times as sweet as sugar. It is not soluble in water, but its sodium salt, which is the product sold commercially, dissolves readily. Saccharin has no nutritional value and passes through the body unchanged. Despite the fact that saccharin causes cancer in laboratory rats, and was banned from the market for a time, the ban was rescinded due to public demand. In 1984 the World Health Organization suggested an intake limit of 2.5 mg/day per kg bodyweight.
• Cyclamates - Cyclamates were approved for consumer use in 1951; they are 30 times sweeter than sugar and, unlike saccharin, have no bitter aftertaste at high concentration. They were banned in 1969 because of suspected carcinogenic properties.
• Stevioside - which is 300 times as sweet as sucrose, is a terpene derivative and is available in several countries.

Ascorbic Acid

Pure vitamin C used as a food preservative and also used in baking as a food for the developing yeast.

Ash bread

A term used in the American South for a cornbread baked in the ashes of a campfire. See Cornbread.

Asian pear

See Appendix A, Ingredients, Fundamentals of Baking and Pastry.

Aspartame

See Artificial Sweetener.

Aspic

A firm clear jelly usually applied in a thin layer for decorative purposes. In the savory kitchen, aspics are made from meat or fish stocks (which often have enough natural gelatin to cause them to set without adding gelatin) or from vegetable or fruit juices sometimes with the addition of wine and these are thickened using gelatin. Aspics are used to glaze and decorate terrines, cold poached fish and canapes. When used as a glaze the aspic adds shine making the food more attractive, and it also seals the food from the air, which keeps it fresh longer. Its name comes form the Greek word aspis, meaning "shield." Aspic is also served cut into small cubes. These are used as a garnish and they also provide a contrast in flavors and textures when the cool smooth jelly is eaten together with a rich pâté, for example. Aspics do not play a large role in the pastry kitchen but when they are used they are made from fruit juices or wine and are set with gelatin. For example, a layer of fruit aspic is often applied to the inside of a mold before filling it with a rice pudding that is set with gelatin. When unmolded for service, the aspic becomes the outer layer.

Asti

A town in Italy well-known for it's production of a sparkling white wine named Asti Spumante, made from the grape Moscato Bianco using a production method exclusive to that region.

Asymmetrical Designs

A term used in the pastry kitchen to describe a style of decoration, most often in reference to one on a cake. There are basically two different types of designs used to decorate the top of a cake: symmetrical designs and asymmetrical designs. Symmetrical designs are more common, owing no doubt to the fact that they are both easier to produce if the chef is less experienced and that they are almost always used for cakes that are to be portioned into individual slices, which is usually the case. A symmetrical design is one in which each of the design elements are of equal size and shape relative to their position on either side of a central line. This does not mean that there is actually a line down the center as part of the design, but rather that if you were to draw a line, the elements would be evenly balanced on each side. A classic example of this type of arrangement would be a ring of buttercream roses evenly spaced around the perimeter of a cake.

Asymmetrical designs are harder to define as any design that is not symmetrical is therefore technically asymmetrical. Asymmetrical designs are rarely used for cakes that are to be portioned before presentation. This type of design is more difficult to execute and requires a more experienced hand to achieve a balanced appearance.

Attereau

A name used primarily to refer to a French hors d'oeuvre prepared by threading meat or fish onto a skewer, coating the ingredients with a thick sauce, dredging the whole in breadcrumbs, and then deep frying. Attereau may also be used as the name of a dessert made in a similar fashion. For the dessert version the skewers are filled with cubes of fresh fruit and or/ sponge cake, coated in pastry cream, rolled in cake or bread crumbs and deep fried.

Aumônière

1. Individual apricot tarts made with whole poached apricots in which the pits have been removed and the hollow stuffed with sugar. The apricots are enclosed in pie dough cut into a triangular shape. After baking, the tarts are decorated with toasted almonds and served with apricot sauce. The name aumônière, refers to the traditional triangular shape of the almoner's purse.
2. A sweet or savory dish made by topping a thin crepe with a filling, gathering up the edges and tying the package closed to resemble a pouch or purse. A well-known example is the hors d'oeuvre called beggar's purse.

Autolysis

In bread baking this term is used to refer to a process that occurs during the time that the initial ingredients in a bread dough (typically a mixture of flour and water only) are allowed to rest. During this time the flour is able to absorb the maximum amount of water before any of the preferments (sponge, pre-dough, old dough) are incorporated. Autolysis provides two benefits:

• the development of gluten, which is created when the two proteins in the flour - glutenin and gliadin - are combined with water and,
• autolysis shortens the final mixing period for the bread dough, preferable because shorter mixing reduces the chances of oxidation that may occur if too much air is incorporated into the dough.

The term autolysis is also used in the production of wine to refer to a reaction that occurs during aging.

Average Flour Value

Grade given to qualify flour based on the following four characteristics: color of the flour, number of loaves that can be produced per barrel of flour, the size of the loaves and the overall quality of the flour.

Awwam

A deep-fried Lebanese pastry made from a yeast-leavened dough. The cooked pieces are drained and then soaked in honey syrup flavored with lemon and rose water.